Technology of Modern Communication
Text A: Bluetooth
Bluetooth wireless technology is a short-range communications technology intended to replace the cables connecting portable（轻便的） and fixed devices while maintaining high levels of security.The key features of Bluetooth technology are robustness（稳健）, low power, and low cost .The Bluetooth specification defines a uniform structure for a wide range of devices to connect and communicate with each other.
蓝牙无线技术是一种小范围无线通信技术，旨在保持高安全级的基础上，在便携式设备与固定设备之间实现无线连接。蓝牙技术的主要特点是稳健，低功耗和低成本。蓝牙规范定义了一个统一的结构，适用范围广的设备连接并相互沟通。
Bluetooth technology has achieved global acceptance such that any Bluetooth enable device, almost everywhere in the world, can connect to other Bluetooth enabled devices in proximity. Bluetooth enabled electronic devices connect and communicate wirelessly through short-range, ad hoc（特别） networks known as piconets Each device can simultaneously communicate with up to seven other devices within a single piconet. Each device can also belong to several piconets simultaneously. Piconets are established dynamically and automatically as Bluetooth enabled devices enter and leave radio proximity.
蓝牙技术已取得全球认可，使得任何支持蓝牙的设备，几乎在世界各地，可以连接到其他支持蓝牙的邻近装置。蓝牙功能的电子设备连接并通过短距离无线通信，特别网络，被称为微微网。每个设备可以同时在一个单一的微微网最多七个其他设备进行通信。每个设备也可以同时属于几个微微网。微网是动态和自动建立蓝牙功能的设备进入和离开无线电近炸。
A fundamental Bluetooth wireless technology strength is the ability to simultaneously handle both data and voice transmissions .This enables users to enjoy variety of innovative solutions such as a hands-free headset （耳机）for voice calls, printing and fax capabilities, and synchronizing PDA , laptop, and mobile phone applications to name a few.
一个基本的蓝牙无线技术的力量是同时处理数据和语音传输的能力，这使得用户可以享受各种创新的解决方案，如免提耳机进行语音通话，打印和传真功能，并同步PDA，笔记本电脑，以及手机应用仅举几例。
Core system
The Bluetooth core system, defined by Bluetooth specification, is a common service layer protocol which covers four lower layers in seven layer protocol. Service Discovery Protocol (SDP) and the overall profile requirements are defined by Generic Access Profile (GAP) A complete Bluetooth application requires a number of additional services and higher layer protocols that are defined in the Bluetooth specification
核心系统 蓝牙核心系统，通过蓝牙规范中定义的，是一种常见的服务层协议，它包括在7层协议四个较低层。服务发现协议（SDP）和整体轮廓的要求是由通用访问模式（GAP）定义一个完整的蓝牙应用程序需要的一定数量的在蓝牙规范中定义额外的服务和更高层协议。
The lowest three layers are sometimes grouped into a subsystem known as the Bluetooth controller（蓝牙控制器）. This is a common implementation involving a standard physical communications interface（通信接口） between the Bluetooth controller and remainder of the Bluetooth system including thdeL2CAP,service layers and higher layers （known as the Bluetooth host）. Although this interface is optional ,the architecture is designed to allow for its existence and characteristics .The Bluetooth specification enable interoperability between independent Bluetooth enabled systems by defining the protocol messages exchanged between equivalent layers ,and also interoperability between independent Bluetooth sub-systems by defining a common interface between Bluetooth controllers and Bluetooth hosts.
最低的3层有时被分为称为蓝牙控制器的子系统。这是一个常见的实现涉及到蓝牙控制器和蓝牙系统，包括thdeL2CAP ，服务层和更高的层（被称为蓝牙主机）的其余部分之间的物理标准通信接口。虽然这个接口是可选的，该架构的设计允许它的存在和特性。蓝牙规范定义的协议报文交换的对等层之间实现互操作性（互用性，协同工作的能力）的独立蓝牙系统之间，也通过定义蓝牙控制器和蓝牙主机之间的通用接口独立的蓝牙子系统之间的互操作性。
A number of functional blocks are shown and the path of services and data between these. The functional blocks shown in the diagram are informative; in general the Bluetooth specification does not define the details of implementation except where this is required for interoperability.
若干功能模块被示出并在它们之间的服务和数据的路径。在图中所示的功能块是信息;在一般的蓝牙规范没有定义实现的细节除非这是必需的互操作性。
Standard interactions are defined for all inter-device operation, where Bluetooth devices exchange protocol signaling according to the Bluetooth specification. The Bluetooth core system protocols are the radio (RF（射频) protocol , link control (LC) protocol, link manager (LM) protocol and logical link control and adaptation protocol (L2CAP), all of which are fully defined in subsequent parts of the Bluetooth specification. In addition, the service discovery protocol (SDP) is a service layer protocol required by all Bluetooth applications.
标准的交互定义的所有设备间的操作，根据蓝牙规范，其中的蓝牙设备交换协议信令。蓝牙核心系统协议是无线电（RF（射频））协议，链路控制（LC）协议，链路管理器（LM）协议和逻辑链路控制和适配协议（L2CAP） ，所有这些在以后的部分被完全定义蓝牙规范。此外，该服务发现协议（SDP）是由所有的蓝牙应用所需的服务层协议。
The Bluetooth core system offers services through a number of service access points that are shown in the diagram as ellipses（椭圆）. These services consist of the basic primitives that control the Bluetooth core system. The services can be split into three types. There are device control services that modify the behavior and modes of a Bluetooth device, transport control services that create, modify and release traffic bears（搬运者，载体） (channels and links), and data services that are used to submit data for transmission over traffic bearers.It is common to consider the first two as belong to the C-plane and the last as belong to the U-plane.
蓝牙核心系统提供服务通过一些被图中所示为椭圆形服务访问点。这些服务包括用于控制蓝牙核心系统的基本原语。该服务可以分为三种类型：修改蓝牙设备的行为和模式，设备控制服务，创造交通管制服务，修改和释放的搬运者（信道和链路），数据服务通过交通搬运者用于提交数据传输的.它是常见的首先要考虑的两成属于C面，最后为属于U平面。
A service interface to the Bluetooth controller sub-system is defined such that the Bluetooth controller may be considered a standard part. In this configuration the Bluetooth controller operates the lowest three layers and the L2CAP layer is contained with the rest of the Bluetooth application in a host system. The standard interface is called the host to controller interface (HCI). Implication of this standard service interface is optional.
服务接口到蓝牙控制器子系统被定义，使得所述蓝牙控制器可以被认为是标准的一部分。在此配置蓝牙控制器运行的最低三层和L2CAP层包含与蓝牙应用程序的其余部分在一个主机系统。标准的接口称为主机控制器接口（HCI）（主机控制接口）。言下之意这个标准的服务接口是可选的。
As the Bluetooth architecture is defined with the possibility of a separate host and controller communicating through an HCI, a number of general assumptions are made. The Bluetooth controller is assumed to have limited data buffering capabilities in comparison with the host. Therefore the L2CAP layer is expected to carry out some simple resource management when submitting L2CAP PDUs（Protocol Data Unit to the controller for transport to a peer device. This includes segmentation of L2CAP SDUs into more manageable PDUs and then the fragmentation of PDUs into start and continuation packets of a size suitable for the controller buffers, and management of the use of controller buffers to ensure availability for channels with quality of service (QoS) commitments.
作为蓝牙架构中定义了一个单独的主机和控制器通过HCI通信的可能性，一些一般假定。假定蓝牙控制器具有有限的数据缓冲能力与主机相比。因此，预计L2CAP层进行一些简单的资源管理提交的L2CAP PDU（协议数据单元协议数据单元）的控制器传输到对端（对等的）设备时。这包括分割L2CAP SDU的分成更容易管理的PDU和PDU的再破碎成适合的控制器缓冲区大小的开始和延续的数据包，并使用控制缓冲区的管理，以确保可用性通道，服务质量（QoS ）承诺。
The baseband layer provides the basic ARQ protocol（（Auto Repeat Request）） in Bluetooth technology. The L2CAP layer can optionally provide a further error detection and retransmission to the L2CAP PDUs. This feature is recommended for applications with requirements for a low probability of undetected errors in the user data. A further optional feature of L2CAP is a window-based flow control that can be used to buffer allocation in the receiving device. Both of these optional features augment the QoS performance in certain scenarios.
基带层提供基本的ARQ协议（自动重传请求协议）蓝牙技术。 L2CAP层可以选择性地提供进一步的错误检测和重发来的L2CAP的PDU。该功能被推荐用于对未检测到错误，在用户数据的概率低要求的应用程序。 L2CAP的又一可选特征在于，可用于在接收设备中缓冲区分配一个基于窗口的流量控制。这两个可选功能增强在某些情况下的QoS性能
Although these assumptions may not be required for embedded Bluetooth technology implementations that combine all layers in a single system, the general architectural and QoS models are defined with these assumptions in mind, in effect a lowest common denominator
虽然可能不需要的嵌入式蓝牙技术实现，将所有图层在一个系统中这些假设，一般的建筑和QoS模型定义与这些假设一点，实际上是一个最小的共同特性
Automated conformance testing（符合性检测） of implementations of the Bluetooth core system is required. This is achieved by allowing the tester to control the implementation through the RF interface, which is common to all Bluetooth system, and through the test control interface (TCI)）, which is only required for conformance testing.
蓝牙核心系统实现自动化的一致性测试是必需的。这是通过允许测试仪（试验者），通过RF接口，这是通用于所有蓝牙系统，并通过测试控制接口，这是唯一需要的一致性测试，以控制方面取得。
The tester uses exchanges with the implementation under test (ITU) through the RF interface to ensure the correct responses to requests from remote devices. The tester controls the IUT through the TCI to cause the ITU to originate exchanges through the RF interface so that these can also be verified as conformant.
该测试仪采用交流下，通过RF接口测试（ ITU）的实施，确保从远程设备的请求的正确响应。测试仪控制IUT通过TCI使国际电联通过RF接口发起交换，使这些物质也可以作为符合性验证。
The TCI uses a different command-set (service interface) for the testing of each architectural layer and protocol. A subset of the HCI command-set issued（发行） as the TCI service interface for each of the layers and protocols within the Bluetooth controller subsystem. A separate service interface is used for testing the L2CAP layer and protocol. As an L2CAP service interface is not defined in the Bluetooth core specification it is defined separately in the TCI specification. Implementation of the L2CAP service interface is only required for conformance testing.
TCI使用不同的命令集（服务接口）为每个架构层和协议的测试。发出的HCI命令集作为TCI服务接口为每个蓝牙控制器子系统内的层和协议的一个子集。一个单独的服务接口是用于测试的L2CAP层和协议。作为一个L2CAP服务接口未在蓝牙核心规范中定义它是在TCI规范分别定义的。只需要进行一致性测试的L2CAP服务接口的实现。
Why choose Bluetooth wireless technology
Bluetooth wireless technology is the simple choice for convenient, wire free, and short-range communication between devices. It is a globally available standard that wirelessly connects mobile phones, portable computers, cars, stereo headsets, MP3 players, and more. Thanks to the unique concept of “profiles”, Bluetooth enabled products do not need to installed driver software. The technology is now available in its fourth version of the specification and continues to develop, building on its inherent strengths — small-form factor radio, low power, low cost, built-in security, robustness, ease-of-use, and ad hoc networking abilities. Bluetooth wireless technology is the leading and only proven short-range wireless technology on the market today shipping over five million units every week with an installed base of over 500 million units at the end of 2005.
为什么选择蓝牙无线技术
蓝牙无线技术是为方便简单的选择，线自由和设备之间的短距离通信。这是一个全球可用的标准，可无线连接手机，便携式电脑，汽车，立体声耳机，MP3播放器等等。多亏了“配置文件”的独特理念，蓝牙功能的产品不需要安装驱动程序软件。该技术现已在规范的第四个版本，并不断发展，打造其固有的优势 - 小外形收音机，低功耗，低成本，内置安全功能，耐用，易于使用和广告组网能力。蓝牙无线技术是市场上领先的，只有成熟的短距离无线技术如今每星期出货超过500万台，装机容量超过500万台基地在2005年年底。
The Bluetooth wireless technology specification is available free-of-charge to our member companies around the globe. Manufacturers from many industries are busy implementing the technology in their products to reduce the clutter of wires, make seamless connections, stream stereo audio, transfer data or carry voice communications. Bluetooth technology operates in the 2.4 GHz, one of the unlicensed industrial, scientific, medical (ISM) radio bands. As such, there is no cost for the use of Bluetooth technology. While you must subscribe to a cellular provider or CDMA，with Bluetooth technology there is no cost associated with the use beyond the cost of your device.
蓝牙无线技术规范是免费提供的充电给我们全球的成员公司。从许多行业的制造商正忙于实施这项技术在他们的产品，以减少导线的杂波，使无缝连接，流立体声音频，传输数据或进行语音通信。蓝牙技术工作在2.4 GHz时，未授权的工业，科学，医疗（ ISM）无线电频段之一。因此，不存在成本为使用蓝牙技术。而你必须订阅到蜂窝提供商或CDMA ，采用蓝牙技术的没有与超越您的设备的成本使用相关的成本。
Range of Devices
Bluetooth technology is available in an unprecedented range of applications from mobile phones to automobiles to medical devices for use by consumers, industrial markets, enterprises, and more. The low power consumption, small size and low cost of the chipset solution enables Bluetooth technology to be used in the tiniest of devices. Have a look at the wide range products made available by our members in the Bluetooth product directory and the component product listing.
设备的范围蓝牙技术提供了前所未有的范围从移动电话应用到汽车，再到由消费者，工业市场，企业，以及更多使用的医疗器械。低功耗，小尺寸和芯片组解决方案的成本低使在设备的最小的要使用蓝牙技术。看看在蓝牙产品目录和组件产品上市提供我们的成员范围广泛的产品。
Ease of Use
Bluetooth technology is an ad hoc technology that requires no fixed infrastructure and is simple to install and set up. You don’t need wires to get connected. The process for a new user is easy – you get a Bluetooth branded product, check the profiles available and connect it to another Bluetooth device with the same profiles. The subsequent PIN code process is as easy as when you identify yourself at the ATM machine. When out-and-about,you carry your personal area network (PAN) with you and can even connect to others.
易于使用蓝牙技术是一个特设技术，无需固定基础设施以及易于安装和设置。你并不需要电线来进行连接。过程中产生的新用户是很容易 - 你得到一个蓝牙品牌产品，检查可用的配置文件，并使用相同的配置文件连接到另一个蓝牙设备。随后的PIN码的过程是，当你确定自己在ATM机一样简单。当彻头彻尾的了解，您携带您的个人区域网（PAN）与你甚至可以连接到其他人。
Globally Accepted Specification
Bluetooth wireless technology is the most widely supported, versatile, and secure wireless standard on the market today. The globally available quantification program tests member products as to their accordance with the standard. Since the first release of the Bluetooth specification in 1999, over 4000 companies have become members in the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG).Meanwhile, the number of Bluetooth products on the market is multiplying rapidly. Volumes have doubled for the fourth consecutive year and are likely to reach an installed base of 500 million units by the close of 2005.
全球公认的规范蓝牙无线技术是使用最广泛的支持，多才多艺，并确保市场上的无线标准的今天。该全球可用的量化程序测试员产品是否符合标准。由于蓝牙规范于1999年首次发布， 4000公司已经成为会员的蓝牙特别兴趣小组（SIG ），同时，蓝牙产品在市场上的数量正在迅速倍增。量连续第四年增加了一倍，并有可能由接近2005年达到装机容量为500万台基地。
Secure Connections
From the start, Bluetooth technology was designed with security needs in mind. Since it is globally available in the open 2.4 GHz ISM band, robustness was built in from the beginning. With adaptive frequency hopping (AFH)（自适应跳频）, the signal “hops” and thus limits interference from other signals. Further, Bluetooth technology has built-in security such as 128bit encryption（加密） and PIN code authentication（认证）. When Bluetooth products identify themselves, they use the PIN code the first time they connection. Once connected, always securely connected.
安全连接从一开始，蓝牙技术是设计时考虑到安全需要。因为它是在开放的2.4GHz ISM频带全局可用的，鲁棒从一开始就内置在。具有自适应跳频（AFH），信号“跳跃” ，因此从其他信号干扰的限制。此外，蓝牙技术已经内置了安全功能，如128位加密和PIN码认证 。当蓝牙产品标识自己，他们所使用的PIN码，第一次他们连接。一旦连接，总是连接牢固。
Text B : “Chinese standard ”aims at international market
In 2004, the TD-SCDMA standards for the 3-generation (3G) mobile communications network initiated by china and ratified by the international Telecommunication Union, has become a focus of the global telecom industry, reported People Daily.Both telecom operators and telecom equipment manufacturers have paid growing attentions to the “Chinese standard” for and telecom equipment manufacturers have paid growing attentions to the “Chinese standard” for 3G, Almost all-mobile communication equipment suppliers in the world are putting more investment and efforts in R&D（Research and Development）for the “Chinese standard”
《人民日报》报道，2004年，中国率先提出第三代移动通信网络标准——TD-SCDMA标准，并由国际电信协会批准通过，该标准也因此成为全球电信产业关注的焦点.无论电信运营商和电信设备制造商已支付日益关注的“中国标准”和电信设备制造商已支付日益关注的“中国标准”的3G ，几乎所有的移动通信设备供应商在世界上，把更多的投资和努力， R＆D（研究与发展研究开发）的“中国标准”
The Chinese government has been making efforts to push forward the “Chinese standard” since the beginning of the year with the pace of R&D and industrialization becoming apparently quickened. The singing of supply contract for the field test of 3G and emergence of TD-SCDMA cellular phone are proof of such progresses.
鉴于研发速度与工业化节奏的明显加快，自年初以来，中国政府开始致力于推动“中国标准”的制定和完善.供应合约的3G外场测试（实地试验）和TD-SCDMA手机的出现是这样进步的证明。
Technical advantages of the Chinese standard gradually come to show
In response to the questions for the so-called level problems of the “Chinese standard”, Zhang Xinsheng, Vice Director of Science and Technology Department, Ministry of Information Industry is of opinion that the underlying reason for having drawn the world’s attention so far（迄今为止） lies in the technological advantages of the TD-SCDMA.
中国标准的技术优势逐渐显露
章新胜，科学技术部副主任回应“中国标准”所谓的水平问题的问题，信息产业部认为根本原因已绘制的世界注意迄今为止在于TD-SCDMA的技术优势。
The world mobile communication industry unanimously agrees that TD-SCDMA can serve as one of the standards for 3G after intensive research and discussions on it. The TD-SCDMA is more extensively recognized following the auction of 3G frequencies in Europe.
全球移动通信行业的一致同意， TD-SCDMA可以作为以后深入研究和讨论它的标准3G之一。在TD-SCDMA被更广泛地认识到以下的3G频率在欧洲拍卖。
At present, the “Chinese standard” for 3G has become a highlight of the world. Japan, Europe and US are all paying attention to it. Each and every major telecom corporation in the world is doing research related to the “Chinese standard”. The TD-SCDMA has been recognized by the industry even though some problems still need further research. TD-SCDMA can be connected with the current telecom system, and with its features of intelligent antenna, high application rate of frequency, the TD-SCDMA’s technical advantages are coming to show gradually.
目前， “中国标准” 3G已经成为世界的一大亮点。日本，欧洲和美国都在关注它。在世界上每一个主要的电信公司正在做相关研究的“中国标准” 。在TD-SCDMA已经被业界认可，尽管有些问题还需要进一步研究。 TD-SCDMA能够与当前的电信系统进行连接，并具有智能天线，频率高的应用速率的特点，TD-SCDMA的技术优势逐渐显露。
TD-SCDMA changes world’s orientation of research for 3G
Zhang holds that the TD-SCDMA standard has changed the world’s orientation of research for 3G in the following aspects.
1. The “Chinese standard” for 3G is the only 3G standard based on intelligent antenna China is leading the world in this field.
2. Development of TD-SCDMA pushes the world telecom industry to make further research and discussion for the software wireless（软件无线电）. The 3G will take on a new look if software wireless is enabled.
3. The development of TD-SCDMA makes people pay more attention to the development trend of IP
TD-SCDMA的改变研究3G世界的方向
张先生认为， TD-SCDMA标准已经改变的研究3G世界的方向在以下几个方面。1.“中国标准” 3G是基于智能天线的唯一的3G标准。中国正在引领世界在这个领域。2. TD-SCDMA的发展推动了世界电信业作进一步的研究和讨论了软件无线电。此外，3G将在一个新的面貌，如果软件无线电已启用。3.TD-SCDMA的发展，使人们更加注重知识产权的发展趋势。
The “Chinese standard” makes the 3G research concentrate on the above three aspects, the biggest contribution of TD-SCDMA. If a breakthrough can be made in the above three aspects, the world wireless communication will take on a new look.
“中国标准”，使3G的研究集中在上述三个方面，TD-SCDMA的最大的贡献。如果突破可以在以上三个方面进行，全球无线通信将呈现新的面貌。
China is capable of doing fundamental researches
According to Zhang, China’s economic growth as well as development of information industry have created conditions for the development of an innovative telecom system. Chinese enterprises have seen great improvements in terms of economic strength, personnel quality and ability of industry. Especially, the overall strength-improvement of the Chinese enterprises in the industrial chain has created conditions for the growth of TD-SCDMA. Aside from the development of core network, terminals and the most important cell site system（基站系统）, the development of a new telecom system still involves design of chip and components production. China has now acquired basic abilities for doing fundamental researches and development even though it is still backward in some areas as compared with foreign advanced level. This ability is a key factor that enables continuous advancement of TD-SCDMA. Chinese enterprises are competent in committing large-scale investment because they have strong R&D strength（研发能力）. Chinese government has been offering strong support to the “Chinese standard”, but the major investment is put in（提供） by enterprises. Chinese enterprises, especially the Datang group, has put large amount of money into the development of the “Chinese standard”. Without such a long-term investment, rapid growth of the TD-SCDMA standard is unimaginable.
中国有能力做基础研究的
据张先生，中国的经济增长以及信息产业发展创造了创新的电信系统的发展的条件。中国企业已经看到了经济实力，职员的质量和行业的能力方面大大改善。尤其是，中国企业在产业链的创造了条件对于TD -SCDMA的发展整体实力的提高。除了核心网，终端，最重要的基站系统的发展，一个新的电信系统的发展还涉及芯片及组件的生产设计。中国现在已经掌握了做基础研究和开发的基本的能力，尽管与国外先进水平相比，在某些地方它仍然是落后的。这种能力是使TD-SCDMA的不断进步的一个关键因素。中国企业有能力承诺大规模投资，因为他们拥有强大的研发能力。中国政府一直以“中国标准”提供强有力的支持，而主要的投资是由企业提供。中国企业，尤其是大唐集团，已经把大量的资金投入到“中国标准”的发展。如果没有这样一个长期的投资，在TD-SCDMA标准的快速发展是难以想象的。
The “Chinese standard” targets at the world market
Chinese government will develop the “Chinese standard” as a strategic industry. It will actively call for the domestic enterprises（国内企业）participation in the industrialization of the TD-SCDMA standard. On the other band it welcomes foreign enterprises to take part in the development of the TD-SCDMA standard, said Zhang.
在世界市场上“中国标准”的目标
张说，中国政府将制定“中国标准”作为战略产业。将积极呼吁国内企业对TD- SCDMA标准的产业化参与。另一方面它欢迎外国企业参与TD-SCDMA标准的发展。
Our target is not limited to the domestic market. We shall go overseas into the world market. By fully exploiting the synergy（协同，配合） advantage in the manufacturing and operation fields（生产销售领域）, we will bend（专心于） on pushing the commercialization process of the 3G “Chinese standard” ahead.
我们的目标不仅限于国内市场。我们将走向海外进入世界市场。在全面发掘生产与销售领域的综合优势后，我们将致力于推动3G“中国标准”的商业化进程
overview of communication
Text A: A Short History of Communication
With all the exciting developments in the realm of communications technology over the last few years it would be easy to think that we are living in times of the most astounding transformations. However, the technologies that so many of us are addicted to today mobile phones, the internet, satellite TV are built on the achievements of our endeavors. The history of communication goes back thousands of years. Each new development has transformed the world we live in. An understanding of the journey we have taken to get where we are now shows that today’s techniques are refinements of what came before. Really big revolutions may be still to come.
随着通信技术在过去几年中所有令人兴奋的领域中的发展，这将是很容易认为我们正生活在一个最令人震惊的时代转换。然而，我们许多人都沉迷于今天的移动电话技术，互联网，卫星电视，是建立在我们的努力所取得的成就。通信的历史可以追溯到几千年。每一个新的发展已经改变了我们生活的世界，在深入了解通信技术的发展历程之后，我们应该意识到现在的技术只是对过去技术的细化.真正的大的革命可能是还没有到。
Early technologies
Communication begins with the first conversations between people it is believed that language developed through gestures using the hands and bodies, and had evolved into spoken tongues by the time of the great migration of humans from Africa some 100,000 years ago.The first long distance communication must have arisen shortly after conversation, with the discovery that it was possible to make oneself heard from a distance by shouting, or banging（重击）objects together to make a sound that travels far. The fire and the smoke it produces may also have been used for simple communication between separated groups.
通信开始于人们相信通过使用双手和身体手势语言发展第一次谈话，并已被人类大约10万年前的从非洲大迁徙一次演变成方言.第一次长途通信在谈话后不久必须已经出现，与有可能使自己从远处喊，或敲打能听到远行者的声音。火和烟雾的产生也可能被用于分离群体之间的简单沟通。
Writing and the storage of information
Communication techniques such as shouting and smoke signals allow people to make their mark over a wider area. The recording of information allowed human beings to communicate over great expanses of time. Cave paintings（壁画） up to 36,500 years old have been found people from that far back are communicating with us today (although it is hard to know what they were saying). 5,500 years ago, more systematized alphabets were developed by the Phoenicians（腓尼基人）. Sumerians（闪族人） and Egyptians. They also developed new ways of storing their information, some of which have survived till today. Scholars have had some success in translating these alphabets and the languages they convey, giving us insight into（洞察…）societies long dead.
如呼喊和烟雾信号通信技术让人们作出自己的印记在更广阔的领域。信息的记录让人类对时间极大的广阔通信。洞穴绘画（壁画）高达36500岁已发现的，人们早都与我们今天的沟通（虽然它是很难知道他们在说什么）。5500年前，更系统化的字母是由腓尼基人开发。苏美尔人和埃及人，他们还开发了存储其信息的新方法，其中一些幸存下来直到今天。学者们曾在翻译这些英文字母和它们所传达的语言了取得了一定的成功，让我们见识到社会早就死了。
The realisations that it is possible to communicate through space and time are the two most important communication leaps（跳跃，飞跃） in history. Everything that has come since has merely improved the efficiency of these two tasks.
这些实现可能通过空间和时间来沟通是历史上两个最重要的沟通飞跃。一切已经到来自从已经仅仅改善了这两个任务的效率。
Early postal services
The next leap was the combination of writing and transmitting information. This begin with people or animals acting as couriers（信使）, delivering written messages. The first postal services were in China around 900BC. Human runners and birds were used to transport messages starting in at least 776BC, when the winner of the Olympic games was reported to the Athenians（雅典人）via homing pigeons（信鸽） – possible the first journalist reporting back to base from a remote location.
下一次飞跃是写作和传递信息的组合。这首先充当信使人或动物，提供书面信息。第一次邮政服务是在中国各地900BC 。人类选手和鸟类被用来通过信鸽来传输消息开始在至少公元前776年，当通过信鸽向雅典报道奥运冠军的时候- 可能这就是第一次记者从远程位置报告给基地。
Long distance instant（即时的） transmission
Getting messages over long distances took time, and it wasn’t long before people were discovering new ways of reducing this time. The first communication at the speed of light was as far back as 37BC, when the Romans used large mirrors to flash（反射） messages from Emperor Tiberius（台比留，古罗马皇帝（前42-37）） over long distance – a method known as the Heliograph（日光仪）.
远距离获取信息需要时间，而且没过多久人们发现减少这种时间的新方法。以光的速度在第一通信是早在37BC ，当罗马人用大镜子从皇帝提庇留，长距离反射消息 - 一个方法被称为日光仪。
Printing – mass reproduction – mass distribution
The invention of the printing press（印刷机） in China some time after 300AD meant that the same message could be delivered to many people cheaply and more quickly than copying out（抄写） the message many times by hand. This led to the first distribution systems, a development which has allowed the flourishing of newspapers such as the one you now hold in your hands
印刷机在中国的发明300AD一段时间后，意味着同样的消息可以比用手抄写更廉价和快速地被传递给许多人。这导致了第一次分配系统，开发。这也使报纸，如一个蓬勃发展的现在握在手中。
At the speed of electricity
With the discovery of electricity the speed and range of communication once again began to increase. In 1793 Claude Chappe invented the Semaphore（旗语） telegraph line, which allowed reliable and fast communication over wires between distant locations. Methods such as the Heliograph which require two locations being able to see each other limited the possible distance of rapid communications. The semaphore broke through this barrier, opening the way for even more radical（根本的） developments.
随着电力的发现速度和通信范围再次开始增加。1793年 Claude Chappe 发明了信号量（旗语）电报线，这使得通过电线遥远的地点之间可靠和快速的沟通。方法，如照相制版需要两个位置能够看到对方的限制快速通信的有效距离。通过这道屏障的信号传出，甚至更激进的的发展开辟了道路。
The invention of techniques such as Morse code allowed complex messages to be transferred at very high speeds over this new medium. This had huge repercussions（反响）for many aspects of human life – transport could be better coordinated（调整）, government could transmit decisions to distant offices almost instantaneously, businesses could work with more businesses over large distances.
这项技术的发明例如莫尔斯电码在这个新的媒介允许高速率的传输。这对人类生活的许多方面有巨大的反响- 交通可以更好地调整，政府可以决定传送到遥远的办事处几乎在瞬间，企业可以与更多的企业合作过大的距离。
These first（最初的） implementations of electronic communication opened the door for many of the technologies we take for granted – television, radio, telephones and the internet.
电子通讯这些第一实现打开门，很多我们习以为常的技术 - 电视，广播，电话和互联网。
We have take a brief journey through over 100,000 years of communication history – we traveled from the development of languages to their projection（发射） over long distances via shouting, writing, postal services and telegraph wires.
我们必须采取一个简短的旅程，通过超过10年通讯的历史 - 我们从语言的发展通过呼喊前往他们的投影（发射）长距离，写作，邮政和电报线。
Next I will continue this short journey through or communications history, and look into my crystal ball at some possible future developments.
接下来，我将继续通过这短短的路程或通讯的历史，看着我的水晶球在一些可能的未来发展
From beeps to print to voice
With Joseph Henry’s invention of the telegraph in 1831 developments took on a cheetah（猎豹）like speed – with thirty years wires were strung around and between many countries in the world. At first these were used to transmit simple signals in the form of short and long beeps – Morse code. Shortly after this, in 1843, Alexander Bain developed the chemical telegraph – a machine that enabled messages written on paper to be copied onto another machine a long distance away – the first Fax machine! Nearly twenty years later Alexander Graham Bell patented the electric telephone. This enabled people with no training to communicate in the most natural form speaking even when separated by hundreds of miles. The first telephone conversation was between bell and his assistant, Watson-Mr. Watson, come here, I want you! These words changed the world forever.
随着电报的1831年约瑟夫·亨利发明了发展的猎豹般的速度 - 有着三十年的电线被串起各地和许多国家的世界之间。起初，这些被用来传输在短期和长期的哔哔声的形式简单的信号 - 莫尔斯电码。在这之后不久，在1843年，亚历山大·贝恩开发的化学电报 - 一台机器，启用写在纸上被复制到另一台机器走远的消息 - 第一传真机！近二十年后亚历山大格雷厄姆贝尔专利的电话。这使人们有没有训练在最自然的沟通形式即使在几百英里分开来讲。第一次电话交谈是贝尔和他的助手沃森先生之间。沃森，来到这里，我需要你！这些话永远地改变了世界。
Over 45 years the limit of how fast people could communicate had gone from the speed of the fastest form of transport, to the speed that signals could travel down（沿着） an electric wire – the speed of light! These developments made it possible to communicate efficiently over much larger distances, changing social lives, government, military operations, investments, agriculture, almost everything.
超过45年，人们沟通速度的快慢已经不再受最快的运输形式的速度的限制，到信号可以沿着电线的速度 - 光速！这些发展使我们能够有效地在更大距离的沟通，不断变化的社会生活，政府，军事行动，投资，农业，几乎所有的东西。
Time travel through storage
We saw how the storage of communication in the form of writing was a leap that permitted people to communicate through time as well as space. Shortly after the invention of the telephone, the storage of sound became possible. In 1877 Tomas Edison patented the phonograph（留声机）, which used wax cylinders（圆筒） to record sound. Ten years later the invention of gramophone （留声机） made it possible for sound recordings to last much longer – early recordings made over 100 years ago can still be listened to today.
我们看到以书面的形式沟通的存储是如何一个飞跃，容许人们通过时间和空间通信。电话的发明后不久，声音的存储成为可能。在1877年，托马斯·爱迪生的专利留声机 ，它使用圆筒录制声音。十年后留声机的发明，使人们有可能进行录音，以持续更长的时间 - 制作于100年前仍然可以聆听到今天早期的录音。
Seeing as well as hearing
At the same time as these developments in sound, people were working hard on capturing images. For hundreds of years artists and scientists had known that a small hole in the wall of a darkened room would project an image of the outside world on the opposite wall. In 1814 Joseph Nicephore Niepce used this principle to project an image of the world onto chemically treated paper in a box – the first photograph had been taken. Images from one part of the world could be brought to another. This allowed people in Tanzania（坦桑尼亚） to see what a London street looked like, and people in London to marvel at（对…惊奇） Maasai warriors （战士） dressed in their finery. In 1877, Eadweard Muybridge developed a camera which could take a series of photographs in rapid succession. He did this in order to win a bet on whether all a horses hooves（hoof的复数，蹄） left the ground when it ran. He lost the bet, but had invented the movie camera（电影摄影机）. By 1927 this had been combined with recorded sound, allowing people to share realistic（现实的） (and not so realistic（不是很真实的）) experiences around the world.
同时为这些发展中的声音，人们对拍摄图像任劳任怨。数百年来，艺术家和科学家已经知道，一个小孔在黑暗的房间的墙壁会投射在外界的形象在对面的墙上。1814年Joseph Nicephore Niepce用这个原理来预测世界的影像传输到化学处理过的纸张在一个盒子 - 第一张照片已经采取了。从世界的一个部分图像可能会被带到另一个。这使得人们在坦桑尼亚，看看伦敦街头的模样，人们在伦敦唏嘘不已马赛族战士在他们的服饰打扮。1877年，埃德沃德迈布里奇开发了一个摄像头，可以拍摄一系列照片快速连续。他为了胜利是否全部马蹄离开地面时，它跑了赌注这样做。他赌输了，但是发明了电影摄影机。到1927年这已经结合录制的声音，使人们能够分享世界各地的现实的经验。
Wireless communication
Communication was still physically shackled（束缚） to the earth. Films and photographs had to be transported from place to place, and telephone calls could only be made between terminals joined by telegraph wires. In 1895 Guglielmo Marconi sent and received the first radio signals（无线电信号）. By 1899 he had sent signals across the English Channel, and in 1902 sent the first radio signal across the Atlantic. The practical and economic limitations of audio（音频的） communication were set to fall, along with the telegraph wires.
Images were shortly to follow, with the invention of television by John Logie Baird in 1925.
通信仍然束缚在地球。电影和照片，不得不被运送从一个地方到地方，电话只能通过电报线连接终端之间进行。 1895年马可尼发送和接收的第一个无线电信号。1899年，他曾发信号横渡英吉利海峡，并于1902年横跨大西洋发送的第一无线电信号。音频的实用和经济的限制通信随着电报线被设置为下降，。 图片很快也被跟随，与1925年由约翰Logie Baird发明的电视。
Moving into the hands of individuals
As these technologies have improved over time they have gradually worked their way into the lives of ordinary people the world over. Radios（无线电设备） can be bought in markets in the most remote parts of the planet. Mobile phones are spreading throughout the world’s poorest countries. In the 20th century we went from being a world of strangers who couldn’t talk, to a world of people divided only by the cost of a phone call. In the coming century that cost is likely to fall.
由于这些技术已经随着时间的推移提高他们逐渐摸索自己的方式进入普通百姓在世界各地的生活。收音机（无线电设备）都可以在地球上最偏远的地区市场买到。手机正在蔓延在整个世界上最贫穷的国家。在20世纪，我们是来自一个无法谈话的陌生人，去一个只有一个电话的成本的世界。在新世纪的成本可能会下降。
Convergence（集成）
The technologies that I have discussed in these articles have all helped us store and transmit communication. All these technologies are joining together in the form of computers and the internet. A cheap computer connected to the internet gives a person access to storage and transmission of wireless words, sounds, and images both still and moving. The future will see this convergence grow, with mobile computers allowing us to take photographs and send them to our friends instantly, wherever they are.
我在这些文章中所讨论的技术都帮助我们存储和传输通信。所有这些技术都联合起来在电脑和互联网的形式。连接到互联网的廉价电脑给人访问存储和无线的话，声音和图像静止和移动传输。未来集成化程度越来越高，移动计算机能随时拍照并将照片发给身处任何位置的朋友。
Eventually we may even combine ourselves with our mobile computers, and transmit our thoughts and experiences directly into the heads of other people. Communication is after all about sharing experience.
最后，我们甚至可以结合我们自己与我们的移动电脑，并发送我们的思想和经验直接进入其他人的头上。通信毕竟是关于共享的经验。
Text B: A Brief History of Technical Communication
Civilization is a cumulative enterprise,and communication has always been a vital component of that cumulation process. From the fourteenth century on, the social system of science has depended on technical communication to describe, disseminate（散布）, criticize, use, and improve innovations and advances in science, medicine, and technology. Rapid change in technical communication has been obvious during the past few decades with the advent of commuters, laser printers, the Internet, and other developments. Viewed from a historical perspective, those changes can be seen as but a portion of the evolution that technical communication has undergone. It has undergone vast changes in the means and methods that it employs and in the audience to which it is addressed, the purpose to which it is put, the roles it fulfills, and the social forces that drive and support it.
文明是一个累积的事业，和通信一直是累积过程的重要组成部分。从十四世纪，科学的社会制度已经依赖于技术交流来形容，传播，批评，使用和提高创新和科学，医学和技术的进步。在过去的几十年中，伴随着计算机，激光打印机，因特网以及其他新技术的出现，通信技术得到飞速发展。从历史的角度来看，这些变化可以看作但进化的一部分的技术交流经历。它经历了手段和方法，它采用了和它所解决的观众巨大变化，其目的是放进去，它满足了角色和社会力量，推动和支持。
Scientific observations and technological developments were recorded in early writings and transmitted orally and through example, such as by apprenticeship（学徒身份）. Astronomical（天文学的） observations were numerous among these scientific records and were preserved in the writings and artifacts of many cultures, including the Aztecs（阿芝台克人）, Chinese, Egyptians, and Babylonians（巴比伦人）
科学观察和技术的发展，记录在早期著作和学徒口服，并通过例子，比如传输。天文观察是在这些科学的记录很多，在许多文化的著作和文物，包括阿兹台克人，中国人，埃及人，巴比伦人分别保存
A case can be made that the first software document writer was Muhammad ibn（…之子） Musa Al’Khowarizmi, a twelfth-century Tashkent（塔什干） cleric who developed the concept of writing a detailed process to be followed to achieve some goal, a technique employed in virtually（事实上，实际上） all computer-programming languages today. He published a book about his approach and named his process the algorithm（算法）, a name that even today is used to refer to（归诸于，涉及） the mathematical application of this method.
病例可取得的第一个软件文档的作家是穆罕默德·伊本穆萨Al'Khowarizmi ，第十二世纪的塔什干牧师谁开发编写了详细的过程中应遵循实现某种目标的概念，一个技术在无形中所有的计算机编程语言今天使用。他出版了一本关于他的做法，并命名了他的过程中，算法，即使在今天被用来指这种方法的数学应用程序的名称。
In the 14th to 17th centuries, western societies experienced an explosion of inquiry and inventiveness in the fields of medicine, science, religion, mechanical arts, graphic arts, and literature that has since been dubbed（授予称号） the Renaissance（文艺复兴）. What emerged was a social system that not only matched but even surpassed the advances in language, travel, trade, social infrastructure（物质基础） (e.g., roads, public buildings, and water supplies), and organization of the earlier civilizations at their zeniths（巅峰，顶峰）。A major diversion of the Renaissance from previous history was to include science in the activities deemed worthwhile to spread through the social organization via communication. With the beginning of the Renaissance, scientific inquiry was underwritten（给…保险，承诺支付） through patronage（赞助）, and the payback for the patron’s investment was the association of his (and sometimes her) name with the advance gained by the philosopher or artisan（工匠，技工） who was being sponsored.Although travel was slow and copies of written tracts（小册子） and books were difficult to produced, a commerce of ideas was established, and communication about science and technology flourished along with that about government, trade, military affairs, and religion. Interest in scientific ideas was fostered（培养，抚育） by the establishment of a series of universities.
在14到17世纪，西方社会经历了询价和创造性在医学，科学，宗教，机械艺术，绘画艺术，文学，已自被称为文艺复兴时期领域爆炸。什么是出现了一个不仅符合而且甚至超过在进步的社会系统语言，旅游，贸易，社会基础设施（例如，道路，公共建筑，和水供应），并组织了早期文明在他们的巅峰。文艺复兴时期，从以前的历史记录大挪移是包括科学视为值得通过通信通过社会组织来传播活动。随着文艺复兴的开始，科学探究是包销通过赞助，投资回收期为靠山的投资是他的（有时她）的名字与谁正在举办的哲学家或工匠（工匠，技工）获得了前进的关联，尽管行程很慢，写短文和书籍的副本是很难产生的，思想的电子商务成立，对科学和技术的沟通连同约蓬勃发展政府，贸易，军事，宗教。在科学思想的兴趣是培养通过建立一系列的大学。
Midway in the fifteenth century, technology made the first of a series of major impacts on technical communication with the commercial application of movable type（活版印刷） or artificial script（手稿）, as it was called then. Johannes Gensfleisch of Gutenberg（古腾堡） almost became the first publisher of printed books, but went bankrupt trying to do so. His equipment was sold off（廉价出卖） to pay his debts, and others quickly opened shops to mass-produce books, mostly religious but many scientific. At this point, five new trades were established almost simultaneously: typefounding, printing, publishing, editing, and books selling. Prominent among the new entrepreneurs（企业家） was Aldus Manutius, who operated a publishing house（出版社） in Venice（威尼斯）from 1490 to his death in 1515. From a technical-communication point of view, most notable of his operation was the employment of Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam（鹿特丹）.Literally and truly a renaissance man, Erasmus had an encompassing knowledge of science, medicine, religion, and polity. At Manutius’s sign（商标） of the dolphin and at several other publishing houses around Europe, Erasmus was employed to edit all manner of texts before they were printed, reviewing them predominantly for content but also for expression. As such（同样地）, he can legitimately（正当地，合理地） be considered the first technical editor.
中途岛在十五世纪，技术取得了第一个系列的可移动式的商业应用上的技术交流产生重大影响（活版印刷）或人工脚本（手稿） ，因为它被称为当时。古腾堡的约翰内斯Gensfleisch 几乎成为了印刷书籍的第一发布者，但破产试图这样做。他的装备被廉价出卖，以支付他的债务，和其他人迅速打开商店大量生产的书籍，大多是宗教，但许多是科学。在这一点上，五个新的行业分别建立几乎同时：铸字，印刷，出版，编辑，和书籍销售。新的企业家突出是的Aldus Manutius ，谁经营在威尼斯一家出版社，从1490到他的死亡在1515年，从技术的观点，沟通点，最显着的他的运作的情况，鹿特丹的伊拉斯谟的就业。从字面上看，真正一个多才多艺的人，伊拉斯谟有科学，医学，宗教和政体的广博知识。在海豚的Manutius的标志，并在欧洲各地的其他几个出版社，伊拉斯谟是用来编辑文本的所有方式都记录之前，审查它们的主要内容，但也可用于表达。因此 ，他可以堂而皇之地被认为是第一个技术编辑。
In the eighteenth century, a major impact was produced not by technology but by a major introduction into the social system of science, the beginning of the scientific journal. These periodicals were established by the emerging scientific societies and institutes not so much to publish original research but to digest and comment on the now vast amount of letters and tracts put into circulation among the members of the scientific community。From the beginning of journal publishing in 1665, the number of such publications has increased exponentially almost unabated, doubling every 15 years. Technology and the underlying scientific research were provided an impetus during the eighteenth century by the introduction of the patent system. The resulting increase in inventive activity was reflected by the continued growth of the technical literature. The fairly regular and reliable delivery of mail through first private and then public postal systems also aided the distribution and utility of technical publications.
十八世纪，科学杂志的诞生对世界产生了重要影响，这种影响不不是来自于技术本身，而是将科学推向了社会。这些期刊是由新兴科学团体和机构没有那么多发表原创性研究，但消化和字母和大片投入流通科学界的成员之间现在大量意见成立。从期刊出版中的开始1665年，此类出版物的数量呈指数级增长几乎不减，每15年翻一番。技术和基础科研是在十八世纪被引入专利制度提供了动力。由此增加的发明活动是由技术文献的持续增长反映出来。通过第一家民营然后公共邮政系统还算正规，可靠的投递邮件也有助于技术出版物的分发和实用程序。
Early in the American adventure, presidents Adams and Jefferson（made science and technology a significant segment of government through the provision of standards for weight and measures, the mapping of the country, the surveying of its natural resources, and the advancement of agriculture. But the sponsorship of scientific research and technical development took a major step with the granting of the nation’s first research contract in 1830 to the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia to study the causes of steamboat boilers’explosions. The amount of this first research contract sponsored by the federal government was ﹩1500. Since then, huge amounts have been spent on the sponsorship of research and development and the documentation and dissemination（分发） of the results of that effort. Indeed, contracting for R＆D has become highly ingrained（彻底地的，根深蒂固的） in federal agencies, and the U.S. government has become history’s largest investor in science and technology and the world’s largest producer of technical communication.
早在美国的冒险，总统亚当斯和杰斐逊（发科技政府通过提供重量和措施标准显著段，该国的映射，其天然资源的勘测，农业的进步。但是科学研究和技术开发的资助采取了与授予全国首个研究合同在1830年费城的富兰克林学院学习汽船锅炉爆炸的原因的重要一步。由联邦政府资助的这项研究第一次合同金额为1500美元。此后，大量的都用在研究和开发的资助和努力的结果的记录和传播。事实上，承包研发已经成为根深蒂固的高度的联邦机构，美国政府已经成为历史的科学技术和世界上最大的技术交流生产国最大的投资者。
About 1830s, with the number of scientific journals exceeding 500 worldwide, another genre（类型，体裁） was seen necessary to manage and delve into（钻研，深入研究） the literature, and several abstract（摘要） journals started publication. They were later termed（称为） the secondary literature, to be followed by the tertiary（第三（位）的） literature, which consisted of indexes to the journal articles (the primary literature) based on subject, author, chemical formula, and a number of other indicators. The first systematic index was the International Catalog（目录） of Scientific Literature, started in 1901 by the Royal Society, although there was an early predecessor published by Reuss in Gottingen in 1801 entitled（给…题名） Repertorium Commentationum Societatibus Litera tiis Editarum Secundum Disciplinarum Ordinem Digessit. In the nineteenth century, industrialization spurred on（刺激，驱策） science and technology, not only by demanding advance for commercial and military purposes but also by providing new capabilities (such as steam-driven printing presses（印刷机） and trains) for producing and transporting printed publications.
1830年左右，全世界科学杂志的种类已经超过500种，需要另一种杂志来管理和查阅这些文献，于是一些摘要性杂志应运而生。他们后来被称为的二次文献，应遵循的第三的文献，其中包括索引，以基于主题的期刊文章，作者，化学式，和一些其他的指标。第一个系统的指数是科学文献的国际目录（目录） ，开始于1901年由英国皇家学会，虽然是早期的前身了Reuss在1801年发表的题为哥廷根 Repertorium Commentationum Societatibus Litera TIIS Editarum继发孔型Disciplinarum Ordinem Digessit 。在十九世纪，工业化的推动下（刺激，驱策）科学和技术，不仅通过要求提前为商业和军事用途，但也生产提供新的功能（如蒸汽驱动的印刷机和火车）运输和印刷出版物。
Also at this time, a technology was being developed that would revolutionize technical communication a century later: the electrification of communication by such researcher/inventors as Helmholtz, Bell, and Edison.
以此同时，由赫兹、贝尔、爱迪生等研究/发明的电子通信技术出现了，该技术将在此后一个世纪的时间内，为通信技术带来翻天覆地的变化。
The conduct of research, and therefore of the reporting of research, was standardized by the adoption of the scientific method, which basically requires the researcher to
State the problem
Form a possible explanation or hypothesis
Observe, experiment, and record data
Interpret the data
Draw conclusions
研究的行为，因此，研究报告，进行了标准化采用科学的方法，其基本要求研究者的状态问题形成一个可能的解释或假说观察，实验，并记录数据解释数据得出的结论
During the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century, a standard outline was adopted for reporting research:
State the problem
Describe the method
Display the results
Draw conclusions
This outline reflects the process of the scientific method.
在十九世纪末和二十世纪初，一个标准的大纲报告研究采纳：状态问题描述方法显示结果得出的结论本大纲体现了科学方法的过程。
That method did not suddenly appear full-blown in the scientific community.Rather, it was based on the logic of Aristotle, established in the empiricism of Francis Bacon, formalized by a coterie of philosophers in the mid-nineteenth century, and overtly stated by John Dewey in his book How We Think in 1990
该方法并没有突然出现全面爆发在科学社区，然而，它是基于亚里士多德的逻辑，成立于弗朗西斯·培根的经验主义，哲学家的小圈子在十九世纪中叶形式化，并公然表示杜威在他的书中我们如何思考于1990年
In the first half of the twentieth century, war was the most important driver of scientific and technological advance. The U.S. Army Medical Corps battled malaria（疟疾，瘴气） in the jungles of Panama, the Chemical Corps pushed chemical advances in explosives and poisonous gases (and defenses against them), the Manhattan District of the Corps of Engineers literally made quantum leaps（量子跃迁） in the understanding of physics, and the air corps pioneered aviation（航空） design.Progress in other developed and some developing countries was spurred on in a similar manner. The British inventing radar and the Germans developing rocketry are among a large number of possible examples. Sad to say, but many of the benefits of science that we enjoy today (e.g., air travel, antibiotics, high-performance materials, computers, and telecommunications) would be in a primitive state of development, if extant at all, if it were not for the exigencies of war.
在二十世纪上半叶，战争是科技进步的最重要的驱动因素。美陆军医疗部队作战疟疾（疟疾，瘴气）在巴拿马的丛林中，化学兵推炸药和有毒气体化学的进步，曼哈顿区工兵团的字面做量子跃迁，以及空军的理解首创，航空设计，在其他发达国家和一些发展中国家的进步是推动下以类似的方式。在这众多可能的例子中，也包括英国人发明的雷达和德国人发明的火箭技术。说来悲哀，但许多科学的，我们今天所享有（例如，空中旅行，抗生素 ，高性能材料，计算机和电信）的好处将是发展的原始状态，如果现存所有如果不是因为战争的紧迫。
The practice of technical communication is among the beneficiaries（受惠者，受益人） of belligerence（交战，斗争）. Technical writing became recognized as a job title（职称）, if not a profession, during World War Ⅱ as the technology and logistics（后勤学） of battle became complicated and required standardized procedures, definitions, descriptions, instructions, and training. World War Ⅱ also fundamentally changed the nature of universities and their relationship with government, particularly the military sector（部门）. In the United States, universities, as the major repositories（贮藏室，智囊团） of scientific knowledge, were called upon to direct large portions of the war effort, especially in the attempt to develop the atomic bomb. The University of Chicago managed facilities in Chicago and Oak Ridge（橡树山）; Columbia University conducted research in New York; and the University of California oversaw（监视，视察） operations at Los Alamos（洛斯阿拉莫斯）, Berkeley（伯克利）, and Livermore（利弗莫尔）
技术交流的做法是好战的受益者之间。技术写作成了公认的职务，如果不是一种职业，二战期间Ⅱ的技术和物流的战斗（后勤学）成为复杂，需要标准化的程序，定义，描述，说明和培训。二战Ⅱ也从根本上改变了大学的性质及其与政府的关系，特别是军事部门 。在美国，大学，科学知识的主要储存库，被要求直接战争努力的很大一部分，特别是在发展原子弹的企图。芝加哥大学管理设施在芝加哥和橡树岭 ;哥伦比亚大学在纽约进行的研究;和加州大学监督业务在洛斯阿拉莫斯，伯克利 ，和利弗莫尔
After the war, military (now termed “defense”) support for science and technology continued to be strong and undergirded（加强, 巩固...的底部） new connections and inter dependencies among the government, industries, and universities. This phenomenon occurred in most of the “victorious” countries; the “conquered” powers turned their attention largely to rebuilding their shattered （破损的）economies and displaced（转移的，背井离乡的） populations. In the United States, a fear of the eastern-bloc（东方集团） countries fueled（激起，刺激） a military expansion, both in the territory protected and in the weaponry deployed（配置，部署）. To ensure that the burgeoning（burgeon萌芽） government procurements（获得，取得） got what was needed, specifications and standards for purchased goods and services were written, mostly by the military, and several new types of writers appeared in the marketplace, notably proposal writers and writers that could “write to mil specs（[Military Specification]军用规格）”.
战争结束后，为科技练兵（现称为“防御” ）的支持持续强劲和undergirded （加强，巩固...的底部）政府，产业和大学之间新的联系和相互依存关系。这种现象发生在大部分的“胜利”的国家;在“征服”的权力把他们的注意力主要是为了重建他们破碎经济和流离失所人群。在美国，一个恐惧的东欧集团的的国家燃料军事扩张，无论是在保护领土和部署的武器装备。为了确保新兴，政府采购得到了什么是需要，规范和标准，购买的商品和服务被写了，主要是由军队，和几种新类型的作家的出现在市场上，特别是提案作家和编剧，可以“写入MIL规格（军用规格） ” 。
At about the same time, a postwar boom ensued（跟着发生，继起） in many economies. It promoted new classes of consumer goods and significantly raised the standard of living in developed countries, victors and victims alike. The effect was much more pronounced（显著的） in the market-economy countries than the planned-economy countries. This postwar boom was evidenced in the United States not only by the government underwriting（保险业） of infrastructures（基础设施） [e.g., the interstate highway system（州际公路系统）, libraries, hospitals, defense early warning system, ICBMs（洲际弹道式导弹系统）, schools and universities (through scholarships, building monies, and research funds), mass-transit systems（公共交通系统）, and air-traffic control systems], but also by a robust（强壮的，坚固的） private sector（私营部门） providing goods and services to the consuming public.
大约在同一时间，一战后的繁荣接踵而至在许多经济体。它促进新类的消费品和显著提高生活在发达国家的标准，胜利者和受害者的一致好评。效果更加显着（显着的）市场经济国家比计划经济国家。此战后的繁荣不仅由政府承保基础设施 [例如，州际高速公路系统（州际公路系统） ，图书馆，医院，防御预警系统，洲际弹道导弹 ，学校和大学 （通过奖学金，建筑款项，以及研究经费），大众交通系统，而且还通过一个强大的私人部门提供的货物和服务的消费大众。
Many of those goods were electronic and were based on the 1947 discovery by William Shockley（威廉.肖克利）, John Bardeen（约翰.巴丁）, and Walter Brattain（沃尔特.布拉顿） of the transfer-resistance device, which has come to be called the transistor（晶体管）. Today, almost no aspect of life in the United States is unaffected by transistors, and their manufacture and use fuels the economies of many developing nations whose labor forces manufacture electronic goods. The most ubiquitous（普遍存在的） application of the transistor and its companion advance, the printed circuit（印制电路）, has been the computer.
许多这些货物分别为电子，并基于1947年发现由威廉肖克利，约翰·巴丁和沃尔特·布拉顿转移电阻装置，它的已经到了被称为晶体管。今天，生活在美国的几乎每一个方面不受晶体管，其制造和使用燃料许多发展中国家的劳动力生产电子产品的经济体。最普遍的应用程序中的晶体管及其配套推进，印刷电路板 ，一直是计算机。
Along with those goods, both commercial- and consumer-oriented（顾客导向的）, came the need for documentation(整理，分类) on their use, installation, maintenance, and integration（集成，综合）. This need opened up several new genres of technical communication: user manuals, quick reference guides, hardware installation manuals, and cheat sheets（说明书）, to name a few. It also created job for the created jobs for the creators of those publications.
随着这些货物，包括商业和消费者为导向的，来到需要的文件对它们的使用，安装，维护和集成。这就需要开辟了技术交流的几个新流派：用户手册，快速参考指南，硬件安装手册和备忘单，仅举几例。这也创造了就业，为这些出版物的创造者创造了就业机会。
Membership statisticsfor the Society for Technical Communication are another indicator of the growth of career opportune ities in this field.
会员统计的技术通信学会是职业生涯时机伊蒂埃斯在这一领域的增长的另一指标。
More important for technical communicators（通信员）, however, has been the effect on work practices that the electronic revolution has had. Successively more powerful computers and more sophisticated software have increased the possibilities in the production of technical communications. Computers lent a correction to text, word-processing packages allowed facile（易做到的，流畅的） manipulation of text, graphics packages prepared and altered illustrations, page-layout（页面排版） software produced camera-ready copy, laser printers provided variations in type fonts and clean printed text and graphics, and scanners presented an alternative means of entering text or graphics into electronic representations through CD-ROMs, the World Wide Web, networks of computers, and magnetic media. In addition, software capabilities are increasing and becoming more comprehensive; what used to be word-processing packages now perform at least some page layout, and layout packages are incorporating（合并，混合） more word-processing functions. On top of that, the software is becoming easier to use, allowing nonprofessionals to use if not master them. As a result, some specialized jobs are being eliminated. Government statistics on projected（设计，计划） civilian employment are sobering（使清醒的，使冷静的）; among the fastest-declining job categories（范畴） between 1994 and 2005 are (the percentages represent the decline in employment during the ten-year period)
对于技术交流通信员更重要的，但是，一直是电子革命已经对工作实践的影响。先后更强大的计算机和更先进的软件已在生产技术交流的增加的可能性。电脑借给一个更正的文字，让文字处理软件包轻便操纵文本，图形软件包编制及修改插图，页面排版软件制作照相制版复制，激光打印机提供变异类型的字体和清洁打印文本和图形，以及扫描仪通过介绍光盘，万维网，计算机网络和磁介质输入文本或图形转换成电子表示的另一种手段。此外，软件功能不断增加，变得更加全面;曾经被认为是文字处理软件包现在至少执行一些页面布局，布局包整合更多文字处理功能。对最重要的是，该软件变得更容易使用，让非专业人士使用，如果不掌握它们。其结果是，一些专门的作业被淘汰。关于预测的平民就业政府统计资料的清醒;其中最快递减的工作类别1994年至2005年分别为（百分比代表在十年期间就业下降）
The changes in technology have placed increased demands on the skill levels of technical communicators. They have not made obsolete（陈旧的） the core competencies（资格，能力）of writers, editors, and illustrators, but they have required new knowledge and capabilities as new job categories have been created, such as desktop publisher, electronic graphic artist, and webmaster
科技的变化放在技术传播者的技能水平不断增长的需求。他们并没有过时的核心竞争力的作家，编辑和插图画家，但他们需要新的知识和能力，新的职位类别，已创建，如桌面出版，电子图形艺术家，与网站管理员
The profession of technical communication has changed radically since its beginning, and there is no reason to think that it will remain unchanged in the future. On the contrary, the historical record would indicate that the rate of change will increase even faster.
技术交流的行业已经从一开始从根本上改变，而且没有理由认为它会在未来保持不变。与此相反，历史记录将表明变化率会增加得更快。
