Concerning the Culture Differences and Relevance between American and Chinese Films
Fan Fangjiang
1. The Origin of American and Chinese Films
In 1893, T.A. Edison invented electric film lens and created "the paddy wagon" studio ,it was seen as the beginning of American cinema .In 1896, the detrusion of Vitascope made more and more American owning the chance to see films.
In 19th century and the early 20th century ,the American’s urban industry and the low level residents developed quickly, films became a mass entertainment that it could adjust to the city civilian need. It was firstly showed in the song and dance hall and then in the theater, showed after the opera performance.
The income of films was high and the competition was fierce. In 1897,Edison engaged in a lawsuit to strive for the patent of making films, and in 1908 Edison established the Film Patent Company which owned 16 patents to control film-making. To 1910,the Film Patent Company monopolized the making, distribution and showing of American films. In order to get rid of the monopoly ,the independent film-makers went to Chicago and Hollywood those were far away from New York to shoot. The condition there was richly endowed by nature and near the border of Mexico, the film-makers could escape easily once in a lawsuit. At now, Hollywood has become the synonym of American movie..
In the mid 20th, luxurious theater had largely replaced the nickel theaters. Hollywood films made a revolution on audio so that it could defeat the competitors like commercial radio broadcast. Finally sound films were produced.
So the truly meaningful movie was invented in modern Europe rather than Chinese. Since China has nothing to do with the invention of films, let’s talk about the motion pictures projection.
In 1896, Loumills hired twenty deputies to go to five continents to show movies. In this way, movie, the cultural product, which owns both art and commodity value had introduced into China, under the western businessmen’s strategy of expanding market. Then, the European businessmen found there was much profit in Chinese film industry, so many of them came to China to invest. They ran motion pictures projection, built and developed franchising cinemas ,even built movie enterprise in China.
From 1896 to 1920s,although foreign investors monopolized Chinese film market, they could not prevent the beginning of our movie activities. In 1903 Zhu Sanlin ,the German overseas student carried films and projector back into China, rented a tea garden to show movies. In 1905, Fengtai photography studio in Beijing shot some pieces of scene of Ding Jun Shan that starred by the old Peking opera actor Tan Xinpei to celebrate his birthday. “Ding Jun Shan” became the first film of China
2. The Culture Differences between American and Chinese Films
China and U.S.A are almost opposing in ideology, both of the countries can represent two very different culture in oriental and western area. Under the background of globalization, the two countries have lots of exchange in economic and culture fields. KFC, McDonald's in China is already the pronoun of American fast food culture, and Tang suit has become the best status symbol of Chinese culture.
Famous movie director George Lucas thought that culture is the meaning of movie. We can say a movie made by a country or a region represents the national and regional culture. Hollywood movies represent the typical American value and Chinese movies embody the Chinese culture connotation. Thus, the analysis of any movie are inseparable from the cultural background reading. Now, globalization has swept the world, all kinds of culture integrate together. The development of movie needs different culture background, different conception and different idea injected. As a reflection of art, films become the branding of era inevitably. No matter Hollywood or Chinese films, film makers will use their own culture background to understand and perform the works.
Films ,as the seventh art, bear the culture spirit of the times. Nowadays, Hollywood has the will and need to make some self development through corporation with the other countries. Reversion or adapting the movies and stories from the other countries and regions is the most direct way. And the movies can show most directly the differences between two countries. The Hollywood movies we are exposed to are all
Genre Movie without exception, the culture value of Genre Movie lies in that it contains an entertainment ethic and it displays the materials properties of movie culture. caters to the public. Especially, it reflects the specific culture concepts and coordinates the conflict of various culture value. I think we must make clear the root of Sino-US culture differences: the basis of Chinese culture is Confucianism ,and its core is “benevolence”, “ritual” and “moderation”, while American culture is followed the Puritan socialist and individualism ,so the value of its culture is based on the sense of mission and personal. The two cultures’ history personality, value orientation and psychological trend are different, so we need to analyze their differences in all aspects.
2.1 The Differences in Affectional Films.
“The Butterfly lovers”(Liang Shangbo and Zhu Yingtai) and “Romeo and Juliet ” are very famous affectional movie in China and America. The both are often compared, because of the similarity of theme. Someone treats “Romeo and Juliet” as western “The Butterfly Lovers”, without doubt, some others call “The Butterfly Lovers ”oriental “Romeo and Juliet ”. Actually, since the two stories are different in time and space. The east-west culture concept permeated in are greatly different. Especially the love view that closely linked with the plot are representative. By comparing the two films ,we can get some interesting results.
We can not tell which love story is more impressive, the two couples are the most faithful follower of love, but in the view of love ,their views are opposite. If the love between Romeo and Juliet is warm flame, however, the love between Liang and Zhu are halcyon sea.
Firstly let me talk about the generation of love. The love between Romeo and Juliet are the typically falling in love at the first sight. At the masquerade party that changed their life, Romeo coming from Montague and Juliet coming from Capulet fell in love at the first sight. Actually before they met each other, Romeo liked debutante Rosalind, and Juliet had already considered Paris’ proposal. But once they met the person they really love, everything got out of hand and the fire of their love burnt more and more intensely. However ,Liang and Zhu can not be so romantic. In order to study, Zhu dressed up like a man to study in the school, and then liked her classmate Liang. In this process, Liang didn’t know the true identity of Zhu, so Liang’s feeling to Zhu is a kind of friendship of brothers. This kind of love that is unilateral can not be full of warmth obviously. Besides, Zhu did not want to leak her true sex to Liang from beginning, and cheated him for three years. Liang was so excited after he knew Liang is a girl, he swore to marry Zhu, at this stage, they began to fall in love. This time span is so long that this is the traditional love story.
Studying these two films carefully, we can find the film culture differences between China and U.S.A. Westerns pay more attention to outer beauty. Romeo and Juliet’s love at the first sight was based on both sides’ beauty, They have no deep communication with each other, only making the judgment by the other’s appearance. And the oriental pay more attention to inner beauty, they had a love opportunities to talk with each other, they studied together for three years. In daily life interactions, Zhu fell in love with Liang, because of his talent and connotation.
2.2 The Differences in Action Films
Action films make person or mechanical’s action as the main form, it is a type of interesting and ornamental film. Hong Kong action film is the representation of Chinese film .Hong Kong action films have experienced decades of evolution, from the early “seven days fresh” ,the rude and coarse workshop level, to world popular and created millions of dollars box-office records. Hong Kong film experienced a complicated and difficult development, Hong Kong famous critic Shi Qi describes it as “from the world worst to the world best”. No matter use people’s body ,the equipment, or mechanical action, compared with the American film in common, Hong Kong action film was less dependent on applying colors to a drawing of cruel pain and making special model by modern high-tech method, or deliberately created grand scene. Its unique is regarding action as a aesthetic object and describing it emotionally. When audience watch films, they won’t feel cruel and violent, on the contrary, they can realize the unique sense of beauty and poetry. Thus Hong Kong action film has been dubbed the reputation of “oriental violence aesthetic”, over the decade, Hong Kong action film swept the globe, and produced deep effect.
Because the naming of action movies mainly derived from the action scene coming from audio-visual level, as a relative concept, it often fixes with fiction, war, western crime and gangster films, and leads off different kinds of subgroups. The design of Hong Kong action film is based on Chinese martial arts, it is the complex combination of Chinese opera ,dance and acrobatics. Its visual effect is graceful and hot. Hong Kong and Chinese film also created a type of film that the other countries do not have –the swordsmen film. The principle of swordsmen film is martial art fighting and the soul of swordsmen film is chivalrous feelings. Swordsmen film is always filled with distinctive national features. However, we can not only see this wonderful fighting scene in the swordsmen film, Hong Kong action film includes at least kicks film, knight and sword swordsmen film, gods and spirits film, gunfight film and so on. In these kinds of action film, they also have the same theme demands and connotation dig like swordsmen films. To a large extent it can realize the differences of value orientation and interest demands between Chinese and American action films.
Taking crime and gangster films as example, American crime and gangster films originated the American traditional western films, it grew mature in the early 1970s.It is marked by “the French connection” and “dirty Harry”, and the western film came from the western novel, it usually treats law as the standard. Sometimes modern police have to do violence in order to keep social peace, they often appear with image of serious law-executor, but they never abuse violence that exceed the range of law. In western films the cowboys usually use violence to get rid of the crime and pacify the good people. But their approaches are not accepted by the legalistic society, so the traditional result is usually the cowboy being banished the place where he rescued, and going to the distant horizon again.
Hong kong crime and gangster film comes from the traditional swordsmen film and matured in the early 1980s,it is marked by “Project A” “Police story” self-guided by Jackie Chan, and swordsmen films come from swordsmen novel, placing particular emphasis on moral.
No matter ancient paladin or contemporary police, “hero”(the unique appellation to the person who is in underworld abounding justices),in the deep of his surface behavior, the value of the idea they believe in is to converge. That is when positive characters wipe out the enemies by violence, its departing point and foothold is inherent correspondence, and more traditional value is appeared. In the final analysis, after the disappearance of Chinese common people’s dream –“Enlightened Monarch dream” and “Ruling dream” ,“Paladin dream” ,the last dream, represents that the common people want to change their lives onto a realistic social order. The contemporary cities in Hong Kong crime and gangster films are the extension of swordsmen world in traditional swordsmen work, sometimes the positive character(his identity is police) will utter the doubt that if justice could be realized only by legal means. So in “A Better Tomorrow”, MR Ma(chow yun fat) kept on stressing his revenge, he said, what I did is not to prove he is stronger than the others, but to prove I would bring the thing I lost back in person!” And in “Police Story”, when Chen Jiaju(Jackie Chan) was framed to be a murderer, although there is no hidden traitor in police office, he was reluctant to cooperate actively investigating and seized the director on both sides by the arms to escape from the police office. In the face of colleague’s advice, he spoke with justice “ I am convinced of everyone, but I can’t rely on you! ”It indicates he can not rely on the legal means that his colleague represent. In the end of “Police Story”, even the director who had been held gave up the legal means and ignored deliberately Chen Jiaju’s abusing lynching.
In an American action film, when the hero performs violence, he is in terms of the type of “Home countries syncretic”. For example, in first two sets of “Die Hard”, the leading character was forced to take action in order to save her wife who was trapped in the building. Subjectively, he saved his wife, objectively, he conquered the criminal and recued more other hostages. Schwarzenegger in “True Lies” took action to save his kidnapped daughter. “Blue Streak” is very obvious, Martin. Lawrence played the part of a thief, for the sake of stealing jewelry back, he dressed up as a policeman. Yet, in this process, he prevented the real crime. Hero often offend some small rigidified orders, but will maintain the sanctity of laws. This treatment is relevant to the advocated “holy laws”, “personality freedom”, “nuclear family” and so on ,in the meantime, it is the reference to real life and it endows the character much sense of reality.
The positive leading characters in Hong Kong action films embrace the traditional value as “friendship” , “dignity”, and “moral principle”, that is to say, they believe in the river-lake rulers, rather than legal authority .Corresponding to the river-lake world in ancient action movie, the modern action movie would fabricate an integrated gangsterdom world, justify its rationality. Chen Haonan(Zhen Yijian) in “Hooligans” creating “the underground order theory” is the most classical. Modern gangsterdom world is similar to ancient swordsman world. In modern gangsterdom world policemen are white and gangsterdom people are black ,which is divided by the feature of profession. But the true “black and white” standard is people’s values. Someone who stands by personal loyalty and rules(such as push drugs or kill innocent ones)even does some criminal activities in the modern legal angle, and the one is also a “white”. So MR Ma ,a gangsterdom person, in “A Better Life” and Lee Rock ,a policeman perverting justice for a bribe, in “Lee Rock” are modeled as positive characters. Hero films and fierce films have been developed to behave this kind of characters. Hero’s personal family and emotional life is almost foil, a sub-line to adjust emotion. Hero’s violence is not based on personal profit like rescuing his kidnapped wife, it is based on maintaining his belief and dignity. The most classical thing is that there are more revenge models in Hong Kong action film than the rescue model in American action film. The exercise of violence is not to get some real profit, but to vent the anger of unfair.
By contrast, the heroes in American action films are usually be worshipped in the level of skill and then be accepted in concept, but the heroes in Hong Kong action films are revered in concept. In the logic of an American action film, everyone can do like a hero, they are just distinguished by whether they can achieve. But in Hong Kong action films, the difference between hero and common person is in whether they can take it, rather than whether they can achieve. So in the end of “ A Better Life”, MR Ma returned to the shipside filled with bullet, even though he could flee alone carrying lots of money, he couldn’t give up his “brothers” in danger. At last ,he was killed by the enemies, and his death not only lowered his “image of hero” but set off his tragically heroic image.
There are some conflicts which are very difficult to reconcile between the value of inherited traditional culture and modern society laws. So Hong Kong action film likes to make hero in the conflicts of ties of friendship and legal principle. We can see that Hong Kong action film is very bound up in the theme of so-called marginal man. This kind of films usually express the life and emotion of the undercover police in gangsterdom world. It still can produce blockbuster effect from the first “Marginal Man” to “current “Infernal Affairs”. “The Most Wanted” and “God of Guns” are very famous in this kind of films.
Once an American scholar made comments on Sino-US action films: American films are more suitable for modern audience ,due to its maintaining authority of laws. By contrast, Hong Kong action films always offend laws, it is not good for the support legal society. However, is the result really like that? In reality Hong Kong is the best city in the world of public security , its legal system is also very strictly developed.
In a conclusion, as an entertainment product, action movies’ mission is to get negative emotion off mass’ chest.
2.3 The Differences in Disaster Films.
Disaster films usually use huge natural disaster as the subject matter. Generally, they will apply colors to drawing a heart quake disaster in order to stimulate audience’s sense of fear .Some others will use special methods that get rid of disaster, defeat or avoid disaster, advocate non-rational religion rescue.
Recently, the American disaster film “2012” raised an office-box whirlwind in our countries like the departed “Titanic” In reality America seldom experienced huge disaster ,but our Chinese have experienced some huge disaster. In the several decades, we underwent Tangshan and Wenchuan earthquakes. The real stories in Wenchuan earthquake shook and touched the world. But why Chinese can’t shoot a disaster film full of emotional appeal like American. The biggest difference between Chinese and American disaster films is that Chinese stress Party spirit and American stress humanity. “Ultra Typhoon”, the typical Chinese disaster film, is made to extol that the Party leader represented by the lord mayor made vigorous efforts to turn the situation. From beginning to end, it advocate how the important leading character rescue his citizen from danger. American disaster film often reflex a nobody’s heroic feats from the common people’s angle.
Why Hollywood action films can attract so many audience? I think they have seven weapons.
The first weapon is aliens, in “Independence Day” American see their familiar hero’s defiance again. Will Smith became the saviour of the world Shoah, he broke into aliens’ mother ship, then relied on computer virus to help universe defeat the aliens that seems unbeatened. The second is minor planet, the film “Armageddon”, its disaster fear source came from outer space. The film fabricated a minor planet of similar size of Texas. According to the orbit ,it would collide with our earth and human would suffer the same fate like dinosaurs. Bruce Willis acted as a tragedy hero, he sacrificed himself to rescue the world. The third is “Godzilla” which adopted two clues mode, when American army surrounded and annihilated the mother “Godzilla”, a small group of journalists found the nest of “Godzilla”, to the bitter end, the American bombers destroy the nest of “Godzilla”. The fourth is environment, when the environment was destroyed, there was no winner. Even the proud and arrogant American should fled to Mexico, when the Ice Age in “The Day After Tomorrow” was coming. At last, American all lived in refugee camp. Due to the former president’s death in disaster, the vice president succeeded the president thoroughly and rectified his errors in the refugee camp. The fifth is virus, the film “Outbreak”, the American military developed one kind of biological weapon secretly, but it produced a variation, the original lifesaving serum lost its effect. Dustin Hoffman acted as a surgeon who is a saviour. At last ,he found the truth in TV station, and rescued everyone. The sixth is weather, to withstand the bad weather, the film “Tornado” modeled a group image of scientists who were fearless of danger and difficulty. The last one is Love. Almost everyone has seen the film “Titanic” ,in the end, Jack passed in the cold sea water, anility Rose kept the promise and happily survived till now, right now “Titanic” became “the heart of the sea” that sank into the sea..
As to Chinese disaster films, “Ultra Strong Typhoon” has filled in the blank of this kind of films in China, and produced a powerful foundation for creating this kind of films. But “Ultra Strong Typhoon” is a totally failure experiment, no matter on plot or technique. Compared with American disaster film, Chinese disaster films have just started, which still need to improve. In short, we should put hope in Chinese disaster films.
2.4 The Differences in Comedy Films.
The comedy movie is an important component of movies. In the comedy movies, except directors, the actors who have special acting styles can bring special styles to their comedy movies, Nowadays, in comedy movies, there are two famous names, they are Stephen Chow and Jim Carrey.
Once we mention Chinese comedy films, we must think of Stephen Chow. He created the “Whimsical” style, and “Whimsical” have great influence on the afterworld.
In today’s Hollywood, when it comes to comedy movies, one person will be absolutely mentioned, this person is Jim Carrey. Jim Carrey’s movies are very unique and popular.
One of the most classical films of Jim Carrey is “The Mask”. Jim Carrey made a lot of contribution to the success of this film. This film is also commented as his most successful performance.
The success of the film wholly depends on Carrey, as he has to sell his characters' frenzied insanity so that it's believable as a reflection of Stanley's inner self while at the same time likable but teetering on the edge of becoming obnoxiously overbearing. Of course, the amazing special effects and make-up , as well as the clever script and amazing directing and cinematography help this film, but if choosing the wrong actor, the whole affair could have easily collapsed. The other cast members are fine in supporting roles, Cameron Diaz coming across is almost otherworldly beautiful, but Carrey is rarely off-screen, and rightly so. The Mask is notable for spoofing almost the whole history of cinema while at the same time respectfully paying homage to it. The audience is treated to everything from silent film slapstick to lavish musical numbers (with excellent songs), frenzied Tex Avery-styled animation to gangster film suspense. On its surface, the film is a crazy, often funny, hyperactively paced cinematic pastiche. The subtext about identity and public faces versus private selves is interesting, but not the focus. It would be fine to explore further, but to do so in this particular film would have taken too much time away from Carrey's surrealistic tour de force. Besides, we've had later films where that subtext has been closer to the heart of a story, such as Catwoman (2004), and where it was very thoroughly and competently dealt with. Many aspects of The Mask differed from the comic book source material, but this is a case where the changes led to such an excellent result that most people have forgotten about the source material and primarily remember Carrey's performance in this film as definitive.
So after studying Jim Carrey ‘s comedy films, we can see that most American comedy films are good at using exaggerated performance to express the sense of happiness.
As to Chinese comedy, Stephen Chow’s comedy films are always the classical. “The King of Comedy” is Chow’s favourite film, which is also his autobiography. The film “The King of Comedy”, mixes comedy and tragedy together: it could make you laugh, at the same time ,you would find yourself in tears. So we can say that “The King of Comedy” has reached the highest state of comedy film.
This is our Chinese comedy film ,full of whimsical style. When you see them, your laughter rises was oftentimes filled with your tears, I think this the characteristic of Chinese comedy films, and it is also the biggest difference between American and Chinese comedy films.
3.The Culture Relevance between American and Chinese films
Into 2010,film cooperation between China and America have had into the climax in a sudden. Besides, “Hot Summer days” ,which was blockbusting in box office in earlier this year, the other two Sino-US film “Shanghai” and “ The Karate kid” both premiered in Shanghai film festival. The cooperation between Chinese and American movies lines became more closely.
Since the 20th century, along with the American strengthening of political and economic power, especially the rapid development of media industry, Hollywood films were always the most remarkable phenomenon of the world film industry system. China had started importing Hollywood movies from the early 20th century. Nowadays, Hollywood films have threatened Chinese films. Someone thought that American films would make Chinese films lose the native consciousness and local responsibility. In the present circumstance of Chinese films, all the threats should be a kind of real existence. In the background of globalization ,Chinese films try to enter into the international film market, and have more and more chances to work with Hollywood. I think it is a double edges sword, Chinese films can progress in this circumstance, but they may be assimilated by the Hollywood films.
3.1 Sino-US Film Remakes
After stepping into the 21st century, and along with the fast paste of globalization, the film industries between America and Chinese are becoming more and more closely and constantly. Hence the remake is supposed to be an important link between American and Chinese film industries in the new area. Here the REMAKE is that kind of film, which adapted by the same novel or screenplay, but has been produced and distributed more than once. Remake has been the regular method in American production mode, since the beginning of 1930,Hollywood had established a tradition of film remakes.
As far as I’m concerned, when American wants to remake Chinese films, the most important thing is to translate the traditional Chinese culture to modern culture that can be accepted by foreign audience.
Hollywood famous director Martin Scorsese remade Hong Kong film “ Infernal Affairs”, and this film has gained a big success. “Infernal Affairs” of Hong Kong’s theme contains grumous Chinese Buddhist culture. The beginning of this film cited Nirvana Sutra of Buddhist sutras, it said that, infernal is the most painful hell of the eight hell. Therefore, this film expresses a painful life circumstance, the dislocation of identity---the two male leading actors can only wander between the undercover identity and the true identity. Relative to the beginning of “ Infernal Affairs” that is full of traditional Chinese culture, the beginning of American “Infernal Affairs”---“The Departed” used the voice-over of the gangster leader Frank Costello to display the value of America, the so-called American spirit---everything is depending on yourselves. So this two films reveal the differences between American and Chinese culture in the beginning of the two films and also decide the differences of culture orientation and narrate purpose.
In general, though Hollywood scenarists totally subverted the Chinese culture and humanity consciousness in “Infernal Affairs” and they made this film lose the Chinese intension, they rebuilt criticize and introspection to the dark sides of American modern social life. They made the remake full of significance and this film “The departed” becomes the most successful remake of the world.
3.2 Sino-US Co-production Films
Nowadays, Sino-US co-production films have been approved by more and more investors.
If Kong fu star Jackie Chen wants to know the gap between American and Chinese film market, perhaps he need not to do some complicated market data analysis, he just need to see his film “The Karate Kids”. This film shot in China, and it is very popular in North-America cinemas, due to its concept of hot Chinese Kong fu. After showing one week ,its box office has exceeded 100 million dollars. But in China the box office of the first week is less than 30 million RMB and the subsequent box office is also weak. So it is very difficult to reach the box office in North-American.
As to box office, this film is invested by China Film Group Corporation and Columbia Pictures, it is known as the Sino-US co-production. This film cannot make everybody happy. According to a person who is familiar with “Global Entrepreneur” saying, investment quota of this film is very limited. The total investment is $ 4000 million, the amount of C.F.G.C capital invested is $ 500 million. C.F.G.C required the distribution right of Chinese mainland and part of Asia. As far C.F.G.C is only cost-recovering.
As to the development tendency of Sino-US co-production films, Sino-US co-production can be an important model in the future. Normally, American side will be in charge of some core work like directing, editing and cutting of later stage, and they will undertake most investment capital. While Chinese part will provide actors and control distribution work in China. In short, the Sino-US co-production film is Hollywood film that is injected Chinese elements.
In a conclusion, the market of North-America is really not difficult to break through, but the Chinese market still need to fumble.
4.Conclusion
When we speak of American films, we all know it has the most advanced film process equipments and the biggest elite group. So it has a deep and secure foundation to develop. Chinese film industry has already worked hard to develop films and wants to surpass the other countries. But due to the lack of technical force ,it still can not make huge success.
As far as I’m concerned, we should take the advantages of American into our films, and import and cultivate film talents to reform and renew the style of Chinese films.
Hope both Chinese films and American films have a good future!
References:
[ 1 ] Georges Sadoul Histoire du cinéma mondial, France, Sadoul,1985
[ 2 ] 拉兹戈洛夫 大众文化与电影， 电影世界 3月刊 2000
[ 3 ] 索亚斌 香港动作片:永远的江湖世界，电影新作 第2期 2006
[ 4 ] Thomas Schatz Old Hollywood/New Hollywood，China Broadcasting and Television Publishing House, America 1993.2
[ 5 ] M.M.萨马蒂，P.J.索特林 好莱坞霸权与民族电影，电影世界 第3期 2000
[ 6 ] 李文 中美合拍片 环球企业家 2010
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my gratitude to all those who helped me during the writing of this thesis.
My deepest gratitude goes first and foremost to my supervisor, Ms Pan, for her constant encouragement and guidance. She has walked me through all the stages of the writing of this thesis. Without her consistent and illuminating instruction, this thesis could not have reached its present form.
I also owe a special debt of gratitude to all the professors, from whose devoted teaching and enlightening lectures I have benefited a lot and academically prepared for the thesis.
Last my thanks would go to my beloved family for their loving considerations and great confidence in me all through these years. I also owe my sincere gratitude to my friends and my fellow classmates who gave me their help and time in listening to me and helping me work out my problems during the difficult course of the thesis.
